# Exploit Mitigations

This chapter documents the exploit mitigations supported by the Rust compiler,
and is by no means an extensive survey of the Rust programming language’s
security features.

This chapter is for software engineers working with the Rust programming
language, and assumes prior knowledge of the Rust programming language and its
toolchain.


## Introduction

The Rust programming language provides memory[1] and thread[2] safety
guarantees via its ownership[3], references and borrowing[4], and slice
types[5] features. However, Unsafe Rust[6] introduces unsafe blocks, unsafe
functions and methods, unsafe traits, and new types that are not subject to the
borrowing rules.

Parts of the Rust standard library are implemented as safe abstractions over
unsafe code (and historically have been vulnerable to memory corruption[7]).
Furthermore, the Rust code and documentation encourage creating safe
abstractions over unsafe code. This can cause a false sense of security if
unsafe code is not properly reviewed and tested.

Unsafe Rust introduces features that do not provide the same memory and thread
safety guarantees. This causes programs or libraries to be susceptible to
memory corruption (CWE-119)[8] and concurrency issues (CWE-557)[9]. Modern C
and C++ compilers provide exploit mitigations to increase the difficulty to
exploit vulnerabilities resulting from these issues. Therefore, the Rust
compiler must also support these exploit mitigations in order to mitigate
vulnerabilities resulting from the use of Unsafe Rust. This chapter documents
these exploit mitigations and how they apply to Rust.

This chapter does not discuss the effectiveness of these exploit mitigations as
they vary greatly depending on several factors besides their design and
implementation, but rather describe what they do, so their effectiveness can be
understood within a given context.


## Exploit mitigations

This section documents the exploit mitigations applicable to the Rust compiler
when building programs for the Linux operating system on the AMD64 architecture
and equivalent.[^all-targets] All examples in this section were built using
nightly builds of the Rust compiler on Debian testing.

The Rust Programming Language currently has no specification. The Rust compiler
(i.e., rustc) is the language reference implementation. All references to “the
Rust compiler” in this chapter refer to the language reference implementation.

Table I \
Summary of exploit mitigations supported by the Rust compiler when building
programs for the Linux operating system on the AMD64 architecture and
equivalent.

| Exploit mitigation | Supported | Enabled by default | Since |
| - | - | - | - |
| Position-independent executable | Yes | Yes | 0.12.0 (2014-10-09) |
| Integer overflow checks | Yes | (enabled when debug assertions are enabled, and disabled when debug assertions are disabled) | 1.1.0 (2015-06-25) |
| Non-executable memory regions | Yes | Yes | 1.8.0 (2016-04-14) |
| Stack clashing protection | Yes | Yes | 1.20.0 (2017-08-31) |
| Read-only relocations and immediate binding | Yes | Yes | 1.21.0 (2017-10-12) |
| Heap corruption protection | Yes | Yes | 1.32.0 (2019-01-17) (via operating system default or specified allocator) |
| Stack smashing protection | Yes | No, `-Z stack-protector` | Nightly |
| Forward-edge control flow protection | Yes | No, `-Z sanitizer=cfi` | Nightly |
| Backward-edge control flow protection (e.g., shadow and safe stack) | Yes | No, `-Z sanitizer=shadow-call-stack,safestack` | Nightly |

[^all-targets]: See <https://github.com/rust-lang/rust/tree/HEAD/compiler/rustc_target/src/spec>
    for a list of targets and their default options.

### Position-independent executable

Position-independent executable increases the difficulty of the use of code
reuse exploitation techniques, such as return-oriented programming (ROP) and
variants, by generating position-independent code for the executable, and
instructing the dynamic linker to load it similarly to a shared object at a
random load address, thus also benefiting from address-space layout
randomization (ASLR). This is also referred to as “full ASLR”.

The Rust compiler supports position-independent executable, and enables it by
default since version 0.12.0 (2014-10-09)[10]–[13].

```text
$ readelf -h target/release/hello-rust | grep Type:
  Type:                              DYN (Shared object file)
```
Fig. 1. Checking if an executable is a position-independent executable.

An executable with an object type of `ET_DYN` (i.e., shared object) and not
`ET_EXEC` (i.e., executable) is a position-independent executable (see Fig. 1).


### Integer overflow checks

Integer overflow checks protects programs from undefined and unintended
behavior (which may cause vulnerabilities) by checking for results of signed
and unsigned integer computations that cannot be represented in their type,
resulting in an overflow or wraparound.

The Rust compiler supports integer overflow checks, and enables it when debug
assertions are enabled since version 1.0.0 (2015-05-15)[14]–[17], but support
for it was not completed until version 1.1.0 (2015-06-25)[16]. An option to
control integer overflow checks was later stabilized in version 1.17.0
(2017-04-27)[18]–[20].

```compile_fail
fn main() {
    let u: u8 = 255;
    println!("u: {}", u + 1);
}
```
Fig. 2. hello-rust-integer program.

```text
$ cargo run
   Compiling hello-rust-integer v0.1.0 (/home/rcvalle/hello-rust-integer)
    Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.23s
     Running `target/debug/hello-rust-integer`
thread 'main' panicked at 'attempt to add with overflow', src/main.rs:3:23
note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace.
```
Fig. 3. Build and execution of hello-rust-integer with debug assertions
enabled.

```text
$ cargo run --release
   Compiling hello-rust-integer v0.1.0 (/home/rcvalle/hello-rust-integer)
    Finished release [optimized] target(s) in 0.23s
     Running `target/release/hello-rust-integer`
u: 0
```
Fig. 4. Build and execution of hello-rust-integer with debug assertions
disabled.

Integer overflow checks are enabled when debug assertions are enabled (see Fig.
3), and disabled when debug assertions are disabled (see Fig. 4). To enable
integer overflow checks independently, use the option to control integer
overflow checks, scoped attributes, or explicit checking methods such as
`checked_add`[^checked-methods].

It is recommended that explicit wrapping methods such as `wrapping_add` be used
when wrapping semantics are intended, and that explicit checking and wrapping
methods always be used when using Unsafe Rust.

[^checked-methods]: See [the `u32` docs](../std/primitive.u32.html) for more
    information on the checked, overflowing, saturating, and wrapping methods
    (using u32 as an example).

### Non-executable memory regions

Non-executable memory regions increase the difficulty of exploitation by
limiting the memory regions that can be used to execute arbitrary code. Most
modern processors provide support for the operating system to mark memory
regions as non executable, but it was previously emulated by software, such as
in grsecurity/PaX’s [PAGEEXEC](https://pax.grsecurity.net/docs/pageexec.txt)
and [SEGMEXEC](https://pax.grsecurity.net/docs/segmexec.txt), on processors
that did not provide support for it. This is also known as “No Execute (NX)
Bit”, “Execute Disable (XD) Bit”, “Execute Never (XN) Bit”, and others.

The Rust compiler supports non-executable memory regions, and enables it by
default since its initial release, version 0.1 (2012-01-20)[21], [22], but has
regressed since then[23]–[25], and enforced by default since version 1.8.0
(2016-04-14)[25].

```text
$ readelf -l target/release/hello-rust | grep -A 1 GNU_STACK
  GNU_STACK      0x0000000000000000 0x0000000000000000 0x0000000000000000
                 0x0000000000000000 0x0000000000000000  RW     0x10
```
Fig. 5. Checking if non-executable memory regions are enabled for a given
binary.

The presence of an element of type `PT_GNU_STACK` in the program header table
with the `PF_X` (i.e., executable) flag unset indicates non-executable memory
regions[^other-regions] are enabled for a given binary (see Fig. 5).
Conversely, the presence of an element of type `PT_GNU_STACK` in the program
header table with the `PF_X` flag set or the absence of an element of type
`PT_GNU_STACK` in the program header table indicates non-executable memory
regions are not enabled for a given binary.

[^other-regions]: See the [Appendix section](#appendix) for more information
    on why it affects other memory regions besides the stack.

### Stack clashing protection

Stack clashing protection protects the stack from overlapping with another
memory region—allowing arbitrary data in both to be overwritten using each
other—by reading from the stack pages as the stack grows to cause a page fault
when attempting to read from the guard page/region. This is also referred to as
“stack probes” or “stack probing”.

The Rust compiler supports stack clashing protection via stack probing, and
enables it by default since version 1.20.0 (2017-08-31)[26]–[29].

```rust
fn main() {
    let v: [u8; 16384] = [1; 16384];
    let first = &v[0];
    println!("The first element is: {first}");
}
```
Fig. 6. hello-rust-stack-probe-1 program.

![Screenshot of IDA Pro listing the "unrolled loop" stack probe variant in modified hello-rust.](images/image1.png "The \"unrolled loop\" stack probe variant in modified hello-rust.")
Fig. 7. The "unrolled loop" stack probe variant in modified hello-rust.

```rust
fn main() {
    let v: [u8; 65536] = [1; 65536];
    let first = &v[0];
    println!("The first element is: {first}");
}
```
Fig. 8. hello-rust-stack-probe-2 program.

![Screenshot of IDA Pro listing the "standard loop" stack probe variant in modified hello-rust.](images/image2.png "The \"standard loop\" stack probe variant in modified hello-rust.")
Fig. 9. The "standard loop" stack probe variant in modified hello-rust.

To check if stack clashing protection is enabled for a given binary, look for
any of the two stack probe variants in the prologue of functions whose stack
size is larger than a page size (see Figs. 6–9).


### Read-only relocations and immediate binding

**Read-only relocations** protect segments containing relocations and
relocation information (i.e., `.init_array`, `.fini_array`, `.dynamic`, and
`.got`) from being overwritten by marking these segments read only. This is
also referred to as “partial RELRO”.

The Rust compiler supports read-only relocations, and enables it by default
since version 1.21.0 (2017-10-12)[30], [31].

```text
$ readelf -l target/release/hello-rust | grep GNU_RELRO
  GNU_RELRO      0x000000000002ee00 0x000000000002fe00 0x000000000002fe00
```
Fig. 9. Checking if read-only relocations is enabled for a given binary.

The presence of an element of type `PT_GNU_RELRO` in the program header table
indicates read-only relocations are enabled for a given binary (see Fig. 9).
Conversely, the absence of an element of type `PT_GNU_RELRO` in the program
header table indicates read-only relocations are not enabled for a given
binary.

**Immediate binding** protects additional segments containing relocations
(i.e., `.got.plt`) from being overwritten by instructing the dynamic linker to
perform all relocations before transferring control to the program during
startup, so all segments containing relocations can be marked read only (when
combined with read-only relocations). This is also referred to as “full RELRO”.

The Rust compiler supports immediate binding, and enables it by default since
version 1.21.0 (2017-10-12)[30], [31].

```text
$ readelf -d target/release/hello-rust | grep BIND_NOW
 0x000000000000001e (FLAGS)              BIND_NOW
```
Fig. 10. Checking if immediate binding is enabled for a given binary.

The presence of an element with the `DT_BIND_NOW` tag and the `DF_BIND_NOW`
flag[^bind-now] in the dynamic section indicates immediate binding
is enabled for a given binary (see Fig. 10). Conversely, the absence of an
element with the `DT_BIND_NOW` tag and the `DF_BIND_NOW` flag in the dynamic
section indicates immediate binding is not enabled for a given binary.

The presence of both an element of type `PT_GNU_RELRO` in the program header
table and of an element with the `DT_BIND_NOW` tag and the `DF_BIND_NOW` flag
in the dynamic section indicates full RELRO is enabled for a given binary (see
Figs. 9–10).

[^bind-now]: And the `DF_1_NOW` flag for some link editors.

### Heap corruption protection

Heap corruption protection protects memory allocated dynamically by performing
several checks, such as checks for corrupted links between list elements,
invalid pointers, invalid sizes, double/multiple “frees” of the same memory
allocated, and many corner cases of these. These checks are implementation
specific, and vary per allocator.

[ARM Memory Tagging Extension
(MTE)](https://community.arm.com/developer/ip-products/processors/b/processors-ip-blog/posts/enhancing-memory-safety),
when available, will provide hardware assistance for a probabilistic mitigation
to detect memory safety violations by tagging memory allocations, and
automatically checking that the correct tag is used on every memory access.

Rust’s default allocator has historically been
[jemalloc](http://jemalloc.net/), and it has long been the cause of issues and
the subject of much discussion[32]–[38]. Consequently, it has been removed as
the default allocator in favor of the operating system’s standard C library
default allocator[^linx-allocator] since version 1.32.0 (2019-01-17)[39].

```rust,no_run
fn main() {
    let mut x = Box::new([0; 1024]);

    for i in 0..1026 {
        unsafe {
            let elem = x.get_unchecked_mut(i);
            *elem = 0x4141414141414141u64;
        }
    }
}
```
Fig. 11. hello-rust-heap program.

```text
$ cargo run
   Compiling hello-rust-heap v0.1.0 (/home/rcvalle/hello-rust-heap)
    Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.25s
     Running `target/debug/hello-rust-heap`
free(): invalid next size (normal)
Aborted
```
Fig. 12. Build and execution of hello-rust-heap with debug assertions enabled.

```text
$ cargo run --release
   Compiling hello-rust-heap v0.1.0 (/home/rcvalle/hello-rust-heap)
    Finished release [optimized] target(s) in 0.25s
     Running `target/release/hello-rust-heap`
free(): invalid next size (normal)
Aborted
```
Fig. 13. Build and execution of hello-rust-heap with debug assertions disabled.

Heap corruption checks are performed when using the default allocator (i.e.,
the GNU Allocator) (see Figs. 12–13).

[^linx-allocator]: Linux's standard C library default allocator is the GNU
    Allocator, which is derived from ptmalloc (pthreads malloc) by Wolfram Gloger,
    which in turn is derived from dlmalloc (Doug Lea malloc) by Doug Lea.

### Stack smashing protection

Stack smashing protection protects programs from stack-based buffer overflows
by inserting a random guard value between local variables and the saved return
instruction pointer, and checking if this value has changed when returning from
a function. This is also known as “Stack Protector” or “Stack Smashing
Protector (SSP)”.

The Rust compiler supports stack smashing protection on nightly builds[40].

![Screenshot of IDA Pro listing cross references to __stack_chk_fail in hello-rust.](images/image3.png "Cross references to __stack_chk_fail in hello-rust.")
Fig. 14. IDA Pro listing cross references to `__stack_chk_fail` in hello-rust.

To check if stack smashing protection is enabled for a given binary, search for
cross references to `__stack_chk_fail` (see Fig. 14).


### Forward-edge control flow protection

Forward-edge control flow protection protects programs from having its control
flow changed/hijacked by performing checks to ensure that destinations of
indirect branches are one of their valid destinations in the control flow
graph. The comprehensiveness of these checks vary per implementation. This is
also known as “forward-edge control flow integrity (CFI)”.

Newer processors provide hardware assistance for forward-edge control flow
protection, such as ARM Branch Target Identification (BTI), ARM Pointer
Authentication, and Intel Indirect Branch Tracking (IBT) as part of Intel
Control-flow Enforcement Technology (CET). However, ARM BTI and Intel IBT
-based implementations are less comprehensive than software-based
implementations such as [LLVM ControlFlowIntegrity
(CFI)](https://clang.llvm.org/docs/ControlFlowIntegrity.html), and the
commercially available [grsecurity/PaX Reuse Attack Protector
(RAP)](https://grsecurity.net/rap_faq).

The Rust compiler supports forward-edge control flow protection on nightly
builds[41]-[42] [^win-cfg].

```text
$ readelf -s -W target/release/hello-rust | grep "\.cfi"
     5: 0000000000006480   657 FUNC    LOCAL  DEFAULT   15 _ZN10hello_rust4main17h4e359f1dcd627c83E.cfi
```
Fig. 15. Checking if LLVM CFI is enabled for a given binary.

The presence of symbols suffixed with ".cfi" or the `__cfi_init` symbol (and
references to `__cfi_check`) indicates that LLVM CFI (i.e., forward-edge
control flow protection) is enabled for a given binary. Conversely, the absence
of symbols suffixed with ".cfi" or the `__cfi_init` symbol (and references to
`__cfi_check`) indicates that LLVM CFI is not enabled for a given binary (see
Fig. 15).

[^win-cfg]: It also supports Control Flow Guard (CFG) on Windows (see
    <https://github.com/rust-lang/rust/issues/68793>).

### Backward-edge control flow protection

**Shadow stack** protects saved return instruction pointers from being
overwritten by storing a copy of them on a separate (shadow) stack, and using
these copies as authoritative values when returning from functions. This is
also known as “ShadowCallStack” and “Return Flow Guard”, and is considered an
implementation of backward-edge control flow protection (or “backward-edge
CFI”).

**Safe stack** protects not only the saved return instruction pointers, but
also register spills and some local variables from being overwritten by storing
unsafe variables, such as large arrays, on a separate (unsafe) stack, and using
these unsafe variables on the separate stack instead. This is also known as
“SafeStack”, and is also considered an implementation of backward-edge control
flow protection.

Both shadow and safe stack are intended to be a more comprehensive alternatives
to stack smashing protection as they protect the saved return instruction
pointers (and other data in the case of safe stack) from arbitrary writes and
non-linear out-of-bounds writes.

Newer processors provide hardware assistance for backward-edge control flow
protection, such as ARM Pointer Authentication, and Intel Shadow Stack as part
of Intel CET.

The Rust compiler supports shadow stack for the AArch64 architecture[^amd64-shadow] on
nightly builds[43]-[44], and also supports safe stack on nightly
builds[45]-[46].

```text
$ readelf -s target/release/hello-rust | grep __safestack_init
   678: 0000000000008c80   426 FUNC    GLOBAL DEFAULT   15 __safestack_init
```
Fig. 16. Checking if LLVM SafeStack is enabled for a given binary.

The presence of the `__safestack_init` symbol indicates that LLVM SafeStack is
enabled for a given binary. Conversely, the absence of the `__safestack_init`
symbol indicates that LLVM SafeStack is not enabled for a given binary (see
Fig. 16).

[^amd64-shadow]: The shadow stack implementation for the AMD64 architecture
    and equivalent in LLVM was removed due to performance and security issues.


## Appendix

As of the latest version of the [Linux Standard Base (LSB) Core
Specification](https://refspecs.linuxfoundation.org/LSB_5.0.0/LSB-Core-generic/LSB-Core-generic/progheader.html),
the `PT_GNU_STACK` program header indicates whether the stack should be
executable, and the absence of this header indicates that the stack should be
executable. However, the Linux kernel currently sets the `READ_IMPLIES_EXEC`
personality upon loading any executable with the `PT_GNU_STACK` program header
and the `PF_X` flag set or with the absence of this header, resulting in not
only the stack, but also all readable virtual memory mappings being executable.

An attempt to fix this [was made in
2012](https://lore.kernel.org/lkml/f298f914-2239-44e4-8aa1-a51282e7fac0@zmail15.collab.prod.int.phx2.redhat.com/),
and another [was made in
2020](https://lore.kernel.org/kernel-hardening/20200327064820.12602-1-keescook@chromium.org/).
The former never landed, and the latter partially fixed it, but introduced
other issues—the absence of the `PT_GNU_STACK` program header still causes not
only the stack, but also all readable virtual memory mappings to be executable
in some architectures, such as IA-32 and equivalent (or causes the stack to be
non-executable in some architectures, such as AMD64 and equivalent,
contradicting the LSB).

The `READ_IMPLIES_EXEC` personality needs to be completely separated from the
`PT_GNU_STACK` program header by having a separate option for it (or setarch -X
could just be used whenever `READ_IMPLIES_EXEC` is needed), and the absence of
the `PT_GNU_STACK` program header needs to have more secure defaults (unrelated
to `READ_IMPLIES_EXEC`).


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